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Ingredients: olive oil, coconut, shea, sunflower oil, beeswax, borage, castor, hypericum, avocado, wheat germ, rose hips, vitamin E, distilled water and NaOH. Scented with eucalyptus, lemongrass, rosemary and pine. A creamy foaming soap which cleans thoroughly disinfected and suppressed the skin while it adds moisture and elasticity. Ideal for deportistas.Peso approx. 150 grs. LIMITED EDITION

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Ingredients: olive oil, coconut oil, shea butter, sunflower oil, sweet almond oil, wheat germ, white clay, red clay, distilled water NaOH.Aromatizado and bergamot essential oil and fragrance of strawberries. A mild soap and clean thoroughly sparkling dragging dead cells and help renew the skin surface.
Recommended for oily skin. Approx. 140 grs.

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Ingredients: olive oil, coconut, sunflower, shea, cocoa, beeswax, hypericum, castor, almond, jojoba, vitamin E, distilled water and NaOH. Scented with essential oils of chamomile, lavender and tea tree, and fragrant sandalwood. A balanced and very gentle soap, suitable for delicate and sensitive skin who need a supply of hidratación.Peso approx. 135 grs.

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Jojoba Soap Soap Soap Rosehip

Ingredients: olive oil, coconut oil, palm oil, cocoa butter, shea butter, beeswax, hypericum oil, rosehip oil (pink rubiginosa), distilled water and essential oils NaOH.Aromatizado litsea cubeba, patchouli and lavender.
A mild soap, soft, creamy and contains repair and regenerative oils that prevent premature skin aging.
Approx. 135 grs.

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An ideal soap for the holidays made with avocado oil, olive, coconut and wheat germ.

Scented with French lavender essential oil and fragrance of lilies of the valley.

A soap recommended for all skin types, ideal for cleaning and carefully balanced.

is a limited edition.

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Chocolate and White Musk

Ingredients: base oils: olive, coconut, sunflower, palm, cocoa and shea butter, beeswax, oil assets, castor, almond, hazelnut, apricot, borage , hemp, honey, cocoa pure distilled water and NaOH. Scented with essential oils of cinnamon and clove aromas of chocolate and vanilla. A creamy, soft soap, touch, ideal for dry and dehydrated. Conditioning repairing and nourishing oils. Approx. 155 grs.

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Ingredients: olive oil, coconut oil, sunflower oil, cocoa butter, shea butter, palm oil, beeswax, ac. wheat germ, ac. hazel, ac. avocado, ac. Almond, NaOH and distilled water. Scented with essential oils of lavender, tea tree, bergamot, geranium and white musk fragrance. A fresh and antibacterial soap that protects the skin of fungi, while nourishing and moisturizing. Approx. 135 grs.

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Gold Rosehip Aromas

Luxury is a word that lately and not associated with "sophisticated", "superficial" or "expensive."
Recently, the glamor of this word lies in the natural, the healthy, the ecological.
admit we like it or not, at times, seems to be natural dificl and live in a harmonious and respectful of nature, but is becoming more people starting to appreciate the natural remedies of yesteryear.

This soap is made with virgin olive oil, coconut oil, palm oil, cocoa manetca, shea butter, beeswax bee, hypericum oil, rosehip oil (rosa rubiginosa), distilled water and NaOH. Rosehip oil combined with hypericum oil has high cellular tissue restructuring properties. Provides elasticity and hydration. Approx. 135 grs.

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oleates's elaboration and macerated wild plants with medicinal properties.

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VillaFortuna 2010 is a collection ... reduced some of the best soaps, which by its image, its aroma or its balanced combination of ingredients have been selected for this particular collage.

Thanks to everyone that you visit us daily and you participate with your comments.

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green deodar

Ingredients: olive oil, coconut oil, sunflower oil, palm oil, shea butter, cocoa butter, beeswax, hypericum oil, castor oil , almond oil, avocado oil, wheat germ oil, hazelnut oil, hemp oil, distilled water and NaOH. Scented with essential oils Himalayan cedar, citronella, eucalyptus, lavender, lemongrass, pine and rosemary. A fresh and invigorating soap, ideal for oily and acne, helping to regulate the sebaceous mantle. Has anti-inflammatory and anti-infective for the effect of green clay. Approx. 130 grs.

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Lens focal length approach

A close-up lens is a converging lens that fits like a filter in front of goal and mission is to reduce the focal length of the lens.
The optical properties approach a lens measured in diopters. Diopters close-up lens is defined as the inverse of its focal length (measured in meters). So if we have, for example, close-up lens of 4 diopters, focal length will be 1 / 4, ie 0.25 m. Obviamante
This means that the focal length of this lens is 250 mm.
To fully understand the influence of a close-up lens we simplificar un poco y asumir que tanto ésta como el propio objetivo son lentes delgadas. Aunque no es cierto, ésto nos proporcionará unos resultados aproximados.
En el artículo Fotografía de aproximación: Dispositivos  dedujimos que la ratio de reproducción (o aumento lateral) venía dada por la ecuación:
             s'
  m  =  ----  -  1   (1)
             f
Likewise, Article effective focal length deduced what the effective focal length of two thin lenses close together. If we call Buddha a lens focal length and focal length fl of the lens approximation, there appear formula can be rewritten as:
Buddha. fefec
fl = --------- (2)
for + fl
From here we will work with a specific case will allow us to understand the nature of close-up lenses. The figure at the beginning of the paper addresses this situation.
The Nikon 50 mm. f1.4 has a minimum focusing distance of 450 mm. Imagine threading a lens approximation of 4 diopters, ie 250 mm.
Suppose we place a particular subject at that distance, ie 450 mm.
From the Gauss equation, conveniently written:

Buddha. s
s' = ----------
s - we need to fo
For s = 450 mm. and for = 50 mm.
50. 450
s' = ---------- = 56.25
450-50
This means that when distance approach s is 450 mm, the image is formed on the sensor to 56.25 mm. the target.
In these circumstances, the reproduction ratio calculated by formula (1) gives: m =

56.25 ------ , - 1 = 0.125
50
This corresponds to a reproduction ratio of 1:8, or whatever it is, the image is 8 times smaller than the subject himself.
If we now place the lens approximation 4 diopters, the situation changes. Why?. For now the effective focal length of the set decreases. Do not you believe it? Let the bills.
; ; 250. 50
By Forumula (2) we must fefec = ------------ = 41.6 mm.
; ; 250 + 50
What influence does this?
If otherwise write the equation of Gauss:
fefec
s = -------- . s'
s' - fefec
we can calculate the value that we could place an object that is the image at the same distance s' ( 56.25 mm) which was when we had not placed the lens approximation. Calculate: 41.6

s = ----------------- . 56.25 = 160 mm (approx.)
56.25 - 41.6
This means that we can place an individual in this position will be the same image which was the original subject at 450 mm. However, and this is important, the target "sees" a virtual subject placed at 450 mm. For him things as if there are close-up lens and the subject was placed at 450 mm. But it is not. This situation can be seen from the diagram that heads this article.
What is the significance of this in the ratio of reproduction? Then calculate:
56.25
The new value of m is m = --------- - 1 = 0350
41.6
This not correspond to a reproduction ratio of (approximately) 1:3. Or what is the same, the subject is 3 times higher than its image.
All this comes to say which is the possibility of bringing the subject to target causing an increase in the rate of reproduction. Of course, for the purpose it is as if the subject was placed much farther from the lens and the reproduction ratio was lower.

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effective approach

If we have two converging thin lenses of focal lengths f1 and f2 respective, it is easy to determine what the effective focal length of the set, if the distance d between the optical centers of both lenses is negligible in relation to their focal lengths. That is, both are practically in contact. This will be the situation when we study the case of close-up lenses.
Gauss equation for the lens 1 will be:

1 1 1 --- +
--- --- s1 = f1
s'1 1 1 1
From this it follows that --- = - - - --- (1)
; s1 f1 s'1

La ecuación Gauss lens for it will be 2: 1
January 1
--- + ---- = - -
s2 s'2         f2
                                      1         January 1
From this it follows that --- = --- - ---
s2 f2 S'2
But as the image point to the first lens becomes the object point for the second lens and the distance measured-to-object points from the optical center to the left, you verify that s2 =-s '1.
1 ; 1 1 1 1
Therefore: --- = ---- - --- ; = ---- + ----   (2)
                  s'2       f2      (-s'1)          f2         
s'1
Gauss equation for the combination of both lenses is:
January 1 1
------ = ---- + ----
fefec , s1
S'2
Substituting the values \u200b\u200bof equations (1) and (2) then:
1 , January 1
----- = --- + ----
fefec f1 f2
                                                       f1 f2
o lo que es lo mismo:      fefec =  -----------
                                                    f1 + f2

This equation will allow us to detemine the effective focal length of a lens which has been on the front COUPLING close-up lens.

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Rosehip Facial Soap

Ingredients: olive oil, coconut oil, corn oil, palm oil, cocoa butter, shea butter, beeswax, distilled water and NaOH.
Active Ingredients: Rose Hip Oil (rosa canina) and castor oil.
flavored with ae. bergamot, lemon balm, lavender and lemon.

Approximate weight

. 120 grs.

A soap designed especially for facial care use, but with possibility to use it to the body.

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natural silk

Ingredients: olive oil, coconut oil, palm oil, sunflower oil, cocoa butter, shea butter, beeswax, wheat germ oil, hazelnut oil, ac . avocado, ac. Almond, ac. Castor, ac. rosehip, lavender destilada.Esencial water and fragrance of lilacs.
Properties: Mild soap and cream suitable for all skin types. Deep cleans skin moisturizing and softening while specific repair for its oils and silk.
Approx. 135 grs.

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Stock: Causes of the blur

In the field of close-up photography, the most important concept to consider is that of Reproduction Ratio, ie "the relationship between the size of the actual subject and its image the sensor. " (See article on photo approach).
In the context of the study on Thin Lenses (See article on Gauss equation ) defined Lateral Increase as "the ratio between the height of the image and the subject's height."
not have to be very insightful to realize that both concepts are equivalent.
this increase was defined lateral m as follows:
and '
m = - ----

and where y 'was the size the image and where and was the size of the subject.
In this article presented the so-called Gauss equation of a thin lens:
January 1 1
---- + ---- = ----
s , s' f
where:
a) s is the distance from subject to optical center of the lens.
b) s' is the distance from the image to the optical center of the lens.
c) f is the focal length of the lens.
In the article on the image plane position and lateral magnification introducing two important observations:
NOTE 1:
When the focal plane is between infinity (∞) and 2 times the focal length, image plane is a distance between 1 and 2 focal lengths.
NOTE 2:
a) If the focal plane is between ∞ and 2 times the focal length is verified that the lateral magnification m is less than unity, which means that the image of the subject is less than the subject itself. This is unusual in photography.
b) If the focal plane is 2 times the focal length is verified that the lateral magnification m is equal to unity.
response to this pair of observations may seem to get pictures of approximation (with reproduction ratios between 1:10 and 1:1) would be feasible for any purpose. To this should be enough to focus at a distance slightly higher than the 2 focal lengths, which would guarantee us getting close to 1 side increases, or what is the same as the size of the image of the subject were somewhat less or equal to the size of one's subject. But it is not .
The reason is simply that the goals can not "focus" very close distances. Depending on cases, between 5 and 15 times the focal length. Or what is the same convergent properties of the targets do not get the rays of light coming out of a point converge into a single image point.
Then: How to achieve breeding ratios in the field of close-up photography?
To understand how this can be done, we must start from the Gauss equation.
1 1 1
As --- + --- = --- if we multiply both sides by s':
, s s'       f

 s'         s'      s'                                      s'      s'
---  +  --- = ----    o, lo que es igual:    --- = ---  - 1
  s         s'      f                                       s       f
In the following figure:

can be seen that in similar triangles ABO and A'B'O verifies that:

A'B 'and' OB 's'
--- = --- = --- = ---
AB , and OB s
; and 's'
Thus m = --- = --- - 1
and f ;

At this point, it should be clear that for increasing m, there are only two possible ways: Either we increase s' or disiminuimos f.
Each of the devices that allow for photos you choose to approach one of these ways:
1) extension rings
These devices are placed between the lens and camera body and their only mission is to remove the sensor from the optical center of the target, thus increasing the value s'. You will find many sites on intenet which displays photographs of various models.
2) Lens approach
This device, similar in appearance to a filter and screw it onto the front of the lens, has a more complex optical properties and will be explained in detail in a later article. It is based on reducing the focal length.

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Devices

A picture may be blurred due to one of three causes:

a) blur due to depth of field

Gate access. University building (Albacete)

In such cases the blur is selective. That is, a part of the picture appears in focus-that which is within the limits of the depth of field, and the rest appear blurred. The photographer selects the subject and isolates it from the environment. In the picture above we have used the Nikon 50mm. f1.4 due to its large maximum aperture allows you to isolate a small portion of the rest of the scene. The limits of the depth of field is achieved with a judicious use of three different parameters:
focal length, focus distance and aperture. The use of selective blurring is an extremely important tool in the process of realization of the creativity of the photographer.

b) due to motion blur (camera shake) camera.

Cyclists. Ayna (Albacete)

is usually an error when capturing a photo. The most common is the desire of the photographer is to stabilize the camera up to prevent this from happening. But sometimes that can be used as a creative resource. In fact, for several years, the presentations were full of photographs intentionally moved, because this way you can get some aspect of abstract painting. But if you abuse this possibility, just by tiring. The vast majority of the pictures I have obtained in these circumstances I have seen pictures failed, but in some cases very specific, as the head of this paragraph, maybe I could appreciate a certain aesthetic value.

c) blur due to subject movement.

Luis Camoes Square. Lisbon (Portugal)

Here things are clearer. If the main subject of a photograph is blurred due to its own motion, making has become faulty. However, it is important to understand that other parts of the scene can be blurred without compromising the validity of the photograph. A fairly common example can be seen that this situation is that which corresponds to the picture above this paragraph. Here the subject is the same town and it has been necessary to use a tripod and long shutter speed, due to the limited light available. In these circumstances, people will blur if you have had some kind of movement. But the main subject is not them, but the square itself. And therefore, does not mean its unfocused decision was flawed.

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Posterization

Today is rare to find a photo showing fenónemo known as posterization. Understand the why of this situation very soon.

In the vast majority of the photographs transciones between different colors that are present are usually very mild. It is true that if a model wearing emerald earrings, the transition between the color and your skin will be very sharp, but not much detail in areas where fenónemo is appreciable. If we observe, however, abrupt transitions over a large area color photography, especially the sky, the inevitable feeling will be contrived. A sky is not "so." Humans are very good at detecting such anomalies. Another very prominent example, but in another area, is the color of the skin. We are very good at detecting unnatural skin colors. Therefore
posterization is characterized by abrupt color transiones in situations that the viewer of the photograph considered unnatural.
How is posterization? To understand this we must remember what the mechanism for registration of light in a picture just capturing it in the histogram. (See article on histograms).
Each color in a photograph is actually a triplet numbers. Each number represents one of the basic colors: Red, Green and Blue (RGB, in English). So if we for example 8 bits to represent each color, tone vary in the Red channel from the Black (1) the purest possible Red (255). The same with the other channels. With these three values \u200b\u200bwill get varying tones, when combined, from the Pure Black (0,0,0) to white as pure as possible (1,1,1). All other panels of three values \u200b\u200brepresent the remaining tones of the photograph.
But the recording light on the sensor is linear. "What does this?
If we focus on a single channel for greater simplicity in the explanation, we found that 8 bits have 256 different shades.
If we use a sensor with a dynamic range of 6 steps ( See article on Dynamic Range ), we might be tempted to think that those 256 propocionalmente tones are divided between the 6 steps. But not true. The first steps only has 4 tones, the second 8 and so on until the sixth to be 128. Set the ISO setting and shutter speed change step is performed by opening a passage (of course) the diaphragm. So if we open
very (very) little diaphragm (and thus greatly underexposed photograph) in each channel there are only 4 different tones (! EYE from 0 to 3, no 56 to 59, for example). Or that if we err
exposure (causing a "slight" underexposure of 1 step), we are! Lose half of TONAL RANGE!.
All this long explanation is needed to understand the mechanism of posterization, or whatever it is, How is it possible to produce these abrupt transitions in tone?
The explanation is as follows:
Suppose we take a photograph in JPEG format (using 8 bits) and due to an error in the exposure we get very underexposed. We lose two such steps. This means that each channel will have, at most, 32 different tones (in the most clear.) The histogram reflect this situation by presenting the right boundary in an area about 2 / 3 of the maximum possible. Using a graphic editor
modify this "widening" the histogram until it approaches the limit of the right side. What happens then? Well
two shades of red with values, such as 12 and 14, go now to assert, for example, 135 and 201. With the original tones of red had a smooth transition. With the new is an abrupt change. If we combine all these transciones steep channels will very often. If you belong to an area of \u200b\u200bphotography, for example the sky, which are expected smooth transitions, the final result will artificial. This is what happens in the picture accompanying the article.
Why posterization is rare to find today?
Because the digital SLR camera users get Raw files and JPEG files no. They have a bit depth of 12 to 14 bits. With 12 bits, for instance, have tonal values \u200b\u200bof 4096. With 8 bits we have only 256. So there are many more shades to the process of "widening" of the histogram is much less critical, because originally it had a sufficient distance between the numerical values \u200b\u200bof the tones.
Under what circumstances can observe the phenomenon of posterization?
In practice, only two.
a) as a creative resource. That is, done on purpose.
b) If you capture a picture generating a JPEG file. If, moreover, this photograph is clearly underexposed. And if you use a graphics editor to expand the histogram.

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New features in digital SLRs. Are they really necessary? Objectives

The evolution of technical advances in the field of digital photography is absolutely stunning. Perhaps the most explosive after that happens in the field of mobile telephony. But often the question arises whether it is focused on the real needs of the user, or go to the slipstream of the marketing campaigns of companies sector.
If we look at the history of developments in recent years in the field of digital SLRs with an overview we certainly surprising.
During the early years of the first decade of the twenty-first century were fundamental commitment megapixels. Each new model is introduced to the market boasts more pixels than the last. But it was an outrageous race to nowhere. First, because a greater number of pixels only important for large format printing. And most photographers INMESA-fans-print their photographs in A4 format. For this size 10 Mpx is more than enough. Not to mention that many others only display your photos on your computer. And with this, supposedly low-resolution photograph can be shown only partially in common monitors. More megapixels in a constant size sensor only bring more noise to the picture. After the bitter struggle
marketing was diverted to the video recording capabilities. Recently, high-definition formats.
The obvious question is: If there are already specific devices for recording video, so why try to incorporate this feature to cameras? Certainly a video camera with a suitable storage device, such as Recent solid state drives, will this work with greater efficiency than any camera, at a lower cost.
Some claimed improvements in the evolution of the cameras are really questionable. As an example, the following three:

• anyone is willing to trust blindly in the mechanisms of elimination of the sensor motes, if you change targets frequently in dirty environments?. Do
• LiveView systems (Live image) that approximate the use of a digital SLR camera to a compact, meaning that the frame is done directly on the TFT back are really useful for the photographer amateur?.
• EVIL "The new cameras, which eliminate the optical viewfinder and replaced by an electronic viewfinder (sometimes as an accessory) represent a real advantage, apart from size, on a conventional digital SLR?.

And finally, does the IAEA latest trend on the horizon: the new cameras are able to get a screenshot in 3D are the type of device that we really need?. Does anyone believe in their right mind, that the photographs will be viewed on a 3D TV with the concurrence required special glasses?
Personally, my view on this is that camera manufacturers should focus on enhancing those aspects most directly related to quality photo capture. As shown in two examples:
Reduce noise in high ISO values \u200b\u200ballow us to play with this variable with greater confidence and allow us to capture moving objects in non-ideal lighting conditions.
increase the dynamic range of the sensors allow us to get pictures with a similar appearance to those obtained with a moderate use of HDR software, without having to make several shots and then doing the process on the computer.
I am quite sure that it is easy to give more examples of new features that the vast majority do not need and also other improvements current itself would represent a real advantage in what is really important: making photographs capture the best possible conditions.

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Currently, most of the targets used in digital cameras are relex zoom lens. While every photographer knows exactly what a zoom lens, it is desirable to have a little prior explanation of their nature.
A zoom lens is an objective that provides a range of focal lengths, rather than a single focal length. Thus a single objective function can play a lot of fixed focal length lenses. If you have a zoom lens with focal range of 18 to 200 (I assume format APS-C sensor) we can vary the focal length between 18 mm. and 200mm., ie from the limit of wide-angle lenses to telephoto lenses. This variation was achieved by the photographer turning the zoom ring on the lens. Although some lenses allow for a constant maximum aperture opening throughout the focal range, the most common is that the maximum aperture diminishes as we increase the focal length. For example for a zoom feature above, more often than the f3.5 maximum aperture to decrease from 18 mm. to f5.6 at 200m.
How does a zoom lens?
To answer this question, we must first understand that the reasons for any purpose is to allow all the rays of a point P of the focal plane converge at one point P 'of the focal plane (and this for any point P of the plane of focus.) In the article entitled Imaging using a objective, we can find a full discussion on the subject. This must be similarly charged with a zoom lens.
also need to understand, as explained in Article angle of vision. Objectives Angle and Telephoto. Part II, by using a telephoto (long focal length) the viewing angle is small and there is a small part of the scene, which produces a magnification effect or approach. If we use a wide angle lens (focal length small) the viewing angle is greater and there is a large part of the scene, which produces a reduction or withdrawal.
The basic design of a zoom lens can be seen in the figure below.

In its most simplified description involving four different lenses. Following the route from left to right, the first three are NOT mission focus (their goal is not to make all the rays at a point P on the focal plane converge at a point P'del focal plane). This mission is reserved exclusively for a converging lens of fixed focal length is fourth.
addition, we point out three additional facts:
a) The lens, which occupy the first and third are converging, while the lens is in second place is divergent.
b) lenses occupying the first and second position can be moved in the direction of optical axis of the lens. This movement is achieved by rotating the zoom ring. The lens tercerca occupying the position is fixed.
c) The mission of this lens assembly is to converge the light rays from the scene (This is the mission of the fourth lens). Those rays arriving parallel to the first lens, will parallel the third lens. Those arriving at an angle to the first lens, will at the same angle of the third lens.
Their sole mission is to provoke a process of magnification or reduction of the image from the scene. From a dynamic point of view, we can observe the operation in the following figure:

found in the top position for setting a telephoto lens. In it lenses L1 and L2 are very close and the combined effect of the three is to magnify the scene. As a result the sensor will register a small portion of the scene. This corresponds to an approximation.
In the intermediate position the zoom lens behaves like a target "normal", ie the scene is transmitted as is without magnification and reduction (See article on Objectives Normal ). In the lower position
find configuration for wide-angle lens. In it, the lenses L2 and L3 are very similar and the combined effect of the three is to reduce the scene. As a result the sensor record a large portion of the scene. This amounts to a departure. Zoom In
market objectives, the main difference with this simplified descripación is that each lens is actually replaced by a group of lenses, with missions such as the reduction of chromatic aberration of the whole.

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Zoom Optical Viewfinder Nikon stabilized

Today, the defining characteristic of the digital SLR (Single Len Reflex SLR, in English) is the presence of an optical viewfinder.
digital compact cameras since the first models use electronic viewfinders. These viewers are a very small version of TFT observable in the back of these cameras. Their main problem is that its resolution, in many cases is not sufficient for a perfectly sharp observation of the scene. Some models not even incorporated.
A new breed of cameras that are called interchangeable lens and electronic viewfinder (Viewfinder Interchangeable Lens Eletronic EVIL, in English) are different from traditional digital SLR models because they lack precisely optical viewfinder.
The first question we address is the explanation of what is an optical viewfinder. The answer is very simple. It is a transparent element through which channels the light from the scene and has gone through the target. Device is therefore a TTL (Through The Lens, in English) which means that the light has been used previously by the lens.
Its mission is also simple. Used to compose the picture.
The operation of the optical viewfinder can be seen clearly on the left side of the figure heading this article. Light passing through the lens is reflected by a semitransparent mirror. Some light is used by the mechanisms of AF and exposure metering (not reflected in the figure) and some is diverted to a pentaprism that offer the image to the viewer as if we looked at the scene with our naked eyes. When pressing the shutter
happens what can be seen on the right side of the same figure. The mirror rotates 45 degrees up taking as a turning its right end and light in all its intensity, is directed towards the sensor. From the point
of view of practical use optical viewfinder to take into account some considerations:
a) The scene viewed through this device is usually a high percentage (around 95%) of the scene recorded at the sensor end. The professional models raise the percentage to 100%.
In my work as a photographer I have seen this situation almost as an advantage. Because there are situations ended commitment that can be solved by the difference between what is seen through the viewfinder and what you just recorded in the sensor.
b) In the case of digital reflected not produce the parallax problem that occurred once in the chambers analog compact. In the latter, the display did not reflect the light from the target, but was, so to speak, as a separate window to the scene, with a slightly different angle, in some cases (eg, close-up photography) could cause problems.
c) Most camera bodies are associated with the control optical viewfinder diopter change for people with eye problems very mild. It's something that, frankly, I have not tried it on my camera.
d) The importance of optical viewfinder in an SLR camera is not negligible. In fact with the vision of the scene being offered through this device, we find some items. A scene image received from the target overlap or append a few more items:
d.1) points of focus.
accurately indicate where we are focusing on the scene to take the picture.
d.2) Focusing Screen.
This element, very common in the old analog SLR, governed by manual approach, it has become virtually obsolete from the moment the autofocus mechanisms have been done nearly ubiquitous. Its mission was to allow the photographer to make clear the area in which you want to focus.
d.3) Annex to the optical viewfinder (at the bottom, usually) is a small TFT screen that provides information on the parameters of the socket (Shutter Speed, Aperture, Diaphragm, etc).
Well, all these factors depend on the good visibility provided by the optical viewfinder. So that under certain conditions a poor (and small) optical viewfinder us greatly complicate the taking of certain pictures.
e) One last comment to refer to the plastic cover that surrounds the viewer and can cause problems for people with glasses, like myself. In fact, for example when using the Pentax * Ist Ds every 2 or 3 photographs should I clean the above glasses. This does not happen when I use the Nikon D200. And there are times You can lose a good picture for this simple and silly question.

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stabilization systems objectives have their own characteristics depending on the brand you are using. In this article we will refer to the peculiarities of the objectives of Nikon.
a) The Vibration Reduction System (VR) lenses use different algorithms to calculate the deviation between two moments: While we maintain pressed the shutter button halfway and when you tighten down for exposure. Also before applying the latter algorithm performs a "pre-Centered Exposure." What does all this mean? Let us explain.
While we pressed the shutter, the vibration detection algorithm running on the target processor through the engine moves the lens to compensate for vibration, with the aim of providing a clear image in the viewfinder. When pressing the shutter release and activate the mechanism of exposure there is a focus of the lens to compensate for the vibration to the optical axis and the flow of motion data that come from that time produced by a different algorimo governed by purpose microprocessor, a new movement compensation of the lens. The result is that you can produce a slight "jump" between what we saw through the viewfinder and what ultimately is recorded by the sensor.
b) System of Nikon Vibration Reduction (VR) has two different modes of operation. In the so-called Standard l off is the slight motion jitter produced to keep the camera handheld when making a photograph. In this case it is assumed that the photographer is located on a base which itself is stable. To put fast. The ground. The so-called
Active compensation for camera shake occurs when the photographer produced not in a stable, but the very base is subject to movement: A car, train, boat, etc..
c) In some lenses that use Nikon's Vibration Reduction system of second-generation VR II, it is possible to maintain the active stabilization mechanism when using a tripod. These objectives are able to detect the absence of jitter that occurs when the camera is firmly attached to a tripod and do not initiate the normal clearing process. In theory they are able to detect the minimal camera shake that can occur due to mirror movement, movement of the shutter curtains and lateral motion due to wind.

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Objectives Using Stabilized

When we use a stabilized lens to be aware of some specific circumstances, whether limited or inadequate understanding of its operation, enabling us to get maximum benefit:
a) Subject to
Because movement way in which advertising is usually presented on targets stabilized, the user may confuse what are the right conditions for its operation. It is often said that a stabilized lens allows shooting at shutter speeds of 3 to 4 steps slower without blurring appears. But there is one important nuance. Take the example of a previous article.
We are at 11 morning trying to get a picture of a flower. The lighting is correct. Since the flower is not very large, using a stabilized 18-200 lens must select a focal length of 150. Suppose that the maximum focal length aperture is f5 can use, for example. Consider the lighting conditions are such that the integrated camera meter tells us that the proper shutter speed is 1 / 30 sec.
We know that in order to trigger the camera by hand without showing blur due to vibration should use obtuación speed of 1 / 180 sec. (Assuming sensor APS-C). Since our goal is wonderful and allows stable shooting with less than 4 steps without causing the blurring due to vibration, ie 1 / 20 sec. we understand that 1 / 30 sec. is a faster shutter speed to 1 / 20 sec. and therefore we have a reasonable assurance of obtaining a perfectly clear. We
and blurry picture. What the hell happened?. What we are wrong?.
What has happened is we have not taken into account at that time running a slight breeze that moves the flower and the speed of 1 / 30 sec. is too slow to freeze the movement. Therefore
: stabilization objectives can avoid blurring due the movement of the camera, but NOT the motion because the subjects themselves.
b) Using a tripod, use a tripod
When the rule is simple: OFF stabilization system. If we do not, the system automatically start the process and run the risk of compensation is made unnecessary. In general, the blurring due to this circumstance is rather limited and does not always occur. But why risk?.
c) Sampling.
This topic is quite technical. The problem is that the information provided by motion sensors is not continuous, but occurs from time to time. For Nikon goals each 1 / 1000 sec. Therefore
engines will receive data to modify the position of the vibration compensation lens every millisecond. In fact the theory of information to detect a "change" is held every 1 / 500 sec. And there's a problem. If you use faster shutter speeds to 1 / 500 sec. the target when exposure occurs may be in a different position for the last measurement. And it can produce a slight blur.
Actually amateur photographers this problem affects us little, because our objectives are not bright sufientes to shutter speeds above 1 / 500 sec. are common. In contrast to the professionals yes that might affect them more.

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Objectives Values \u200b\u200bObjectives stabilized

stabilizing system allows a goal off the slight blur that occurs when you take a picture by hand, without support and, when the shutter release, we made a small movement objective. Is often referred to shake or vibration.
This happens usually at shutter speeds below 1/LongitudFocal, for size of full-format sensor. If your size is APS-C sensor, the threshold corresponds to somewhat higher velocities.
To understand the stabilization mechanism, the first thing we do is explain what the target's movement that attempts to compensate. This movement can be decomposed into two components, as shown in the figure.
A vertical component consisting of a complete rotation of the camera and with it the objective "about the axis X. From a practical standpoint, the goal pointing a little towards the sky or a little to the ground.
A horizontal component consisting of a complete rotation of the camera and with it the objective "about the axis Y. From a practical standpoint, the goal pointing slightly to the right or slightly to the left.
Clearly, any rotation around the Z axis, the optical axis, will not have any influence on the image due to the circular symmetry of the targets. From the practical point of view equivalent to slightly raise the right or left of the camera.
Sensors are informed of these movements and sends the data to a microprocessor that after calculating compensation, active engines that move slightly inside the objective lens. This has placed among the rest that make up the group and its sole mission is to reduce vibration. The attached figure is represented this lens, but not the rest of the group.
The stabilization system activation caused by pressing the shutter button halfway, in the same action in which activated autofocus. Naming
blur the issue makes sense, because the situation is somewhat similar to what occurs for points closer or more distant to the focal plane that contained within the limits of the depth of field. That different rays from a single point in the scene converge in a wider area than the circle of confusion and therefore it is blurred in the image.
Here, the process is somewhat different.
Consider, for simplicity that the jitter is only a vertical movement. And let's realize that the goal a little more pointed skyward.
In this case, the rays from any point in the scene belonging to the focal plane impact on the target in different areas and different angles. So some intersect the image plane in an area outside the circle of confusion centered on the image point. In this way we obtain a blurred image of a point, because they belong to the focal plane, should generate the image plane in a circle (formed by all the rays that reach it by following different paths) below the circle of confusion. Obviously, this same reasoning applies to all items included within the limits of the initial depth of field.
The work of the stabilization system, in this case, slightly move the lens correction through the use of vertical motor so that the entire target system do impact the beam at the image in its original position within the circle of confusion.
Through this mechanism can coseguir reduce the shutter speed 3 to 4 steps, without showing the blur caused by vibration. Of course, not all the time.

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ISO

Objective: Nikon 18-200 f3.5-5.6

Focal Length: 135 mm.

Aperture: f5 Shutter Speed \u200b\u200b

: 1 / 125 sec.

ISO: 400

ISO stands for International Organization Stadarization and in the field of photography measures the responsiveness of light-sensitive material to produce a photographic image well exposed. When the ISO setting increases is possible to obtain a correct exposure in the presence of less light.
Increasing ISO is really a process of amplification of the electrical signal generated by the light sensor fotocaptores. An entirely different process to that produced in the field of film photography.
inexorably linked to amplification of the electrical signal is the phenomenon of noise. Thus the main problem to be addressed when using high ISO settings is the management of noise.
We can raise several questions: Under what circumstances
is necessary to raise the ISO?
How can we increase the ISO value, without deterioration is the picture obtained by the appearance of noise? Let
to comment on the second question. Actually the answer depends on the sensor you are using. The base level is usually 100 ISO although some cameras will automatically start at 200 and a few at 50. The mechanism is such that if we raise the ISO value of 100 to 200, we get the same exposure to the light half.
If using as reference a digital camera compact, the sound is already very evident even when we held the first increment of 100 to 200. Therefore, few joys.
for digital SLR cameras, low-end may be possible to raise up to 400. In my Pentax ist DS, which launches the series on 200 ISO beyond 400 the noise starts to be a problem. For semi-professional digital SLR
, values \u200b\u200bof up to 800 ISO is not usually an issue. In my Nikon D200, is what suecede.
In the case of professional SLR is possible to raise the level more. So they say.
In all cases, and it is important to be clear, what is meant by the above paragraphs is that the noise-generation inevitably is easily removed using a photo editing program. Because their intensity is mild.
But there are always a "but" only if the correct exposure at or very close to correct. This means that if you manipulate the image with an image editing program to get the correct exposure, we have not succeeded in capturing, it is likely that we bring out the noise and just ruining the picture. In case of underexposure the problem worsens.
With respect to the first-and still-unanswered question, it is customary to say that the proper context for raising the ISO value is when the scene lighting is poor. When it is dark. For example, in sunsets, interiors, etc. And it's true.
But in my opinion, there are other circumstances more favorable to it in increasing the ISO value. When we try to shoot static subjects not targeted faint in normal lighting conditions. To realize: A flower swaying in the breeze at 11 am. If we use a very bright target such as the Nikon 18-200 f3.5-5.6 is often necessary due to the small size of the flower, use a focal length of about 150 mm. In that case the greatest possible openness is around f5. With these data, the appropriate shutter speed to get correct exposure can be so low that the movement itself flower, swaying in the breeze, lead us to a power of focus. (Notice to mariners: Here the fact that the lens is, as it is, stabilized, adds nothing. Since the mission of stabilization is to correct the movement of camera shake in the hands of the photographer and has no power to act on the flower that is moving. More on this in another article.)
In such cases there is an additional favorable circumstances. Since the lighting conditions are correct, the electrical signal generated is high and therefore the signal to noise ratio is very favorable.Lo which means that the noise is negligible.
Finally, the protocol used is very simple: Set the correct exposure with the lowest ISO value, typically 100. It raises the level to where possible or necessary, then increases the shutter speed in the same number of steps.

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Opening Aperture: f22

Opening Aperture: f45

In the previous article diffraction theory for circular targets, it was established that a separation between the centers of the Airy disks of:

d = 1.22 fλ

guaranteed, according to the Rayleigh criterion, two points of light very close to be resolved as different points in the image and do not constitute a single oval of light, something that obviously hurts their sharpness.

It is time to understand what are the practical implications of this statement.

If we take an APS-C sensor typical 23.6 mm. wide by 15.8 mm. high that contains within it a pattern of 3872 x 2952 fotocaptores of light, is quite simple to calculate what the estimated separation between the captors.

horizontal separation = 23.6 / 3872 = 0.0061 mm.

vertical separation = 15.8 / 2952 = 0.0054 mm.

As these results are merely estimates, we can say that the separation is about 0.006 mm.

If the incident light is predominantly bluish tint, which is most common in outdoor photography, its wavelength is about 0.0004 mm.

With these data we are able to estimate the number f that guarantee the Rayleigh criterion. If we use a value of f11, then:

d = 1.22 x 11 x 0.0004 = 0.0054 mm.

Therefore, with this value for the number f, the distance between the centers of the Airy disk is less than fotocaptores existing between two points ahead and the image is properly solved.

In the heading of the article are two pictures taken at exactly the same conditions using a tripod, remote shutter release and the Tamron 90 mm macro lens. f2.8.

The only difference is that in the first of them has used an f value of 22 and the second a 45. It is clear that, despite being a value significantly steeper than the threshold corresponding to f11, the former is not observable a noticeable loss of sharpness, while the second does. The f values \u200b\u200bfor these numbers are:

d22 = 1.22 x 22 x 0.0004 = 0.011

, D45 = 1.22 x 45 x 0.0004 = 0.022

In the first case the distance is about twice that which exists between two consecutive fotocaptores. The second is four times larger.

Just keep in mind that the above calculations are merely estimates and their only intention is to give a qualitative approach to the problem, without trying to be absolutely accurate.

Finally, it should be noted that the title of the article is related to the fact that these so closed diaphragms are only used in practice photomacrographs.